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pr. THE observations contained in the preceding five
books approximately cover the method of invention
and the arrangement of the material thus provided.
It is absolutely necessary to acquire a thorough
knowledge of this method in all its details, if we
desire to become accomplished orators, but a simpler
and briefer course of instruction is more suitable for
beginners.
[2]
For they tend either to be deterred from
study by the difficulties of so detailed and complicated
a course, or lose heart at having to attempt tasks of
such difficulty just at the very period when their
minds need special nourishment and a more attractive form of diet, or think that when they have
learned this much and no more, they are fully
equipped for the tasks of eloquence, or finally, regarding themselves as fettered by certain fixed laws
of oratory, shrink from making any effort on their
own initiative.
[3]
Consequently, it has been held that
those who have exercised the greatest care in
writing text-books of rhetoric have been the furthest
removed from genuine eloquence. Still, it is absolutely necessary to point out to beginners the road
which they should follow, though this road must be
smooth and easy not merely to enter, but to indicate.
Consequently, our skilful instructor should select all
[p. 179]
that is best in the various writers on the subject
and content himself for the moment with imparting
those precepts of which he approves, without wasting
time over the refutation of those which he does not
approve. For thus your pupils will follow where you
lead.
[4]
Later, as they acquire strength in speaking,
their learning will grow in proportion. To begin
with, they may be allowed to think that there is no
other road than that on which we have set their
feet, and it may be left to time to teach them what
is actually the best. It is true that writers on
rhetoric have, by the pertinacity with which they
have defended their opinions, made the principles
of the science which they profess somewhat complicated; but these principles are in reality neither
obscure nor hard to understand.
[5]
Consequently, if
we regard the treatment of the art as a whole, it is
harder to decide what we should teach than to teach
it, once the decision has been made. Above all, in
the two departments which I have mentioned, the
necessary rules are but few in number, and if the
pupil gives them ready acceptance, he will find that
the path to further accomplishment presents no
difficulty.
[6]
I have, it is true, already expended much labour
on this portion of my task; for I desired to make
it clear that rhetoric is the science of speaking well,
that it is useful, and further, that it is an art and a
virtue. I wished also to show that its subject matter
consists of everything on which an orator may be
called to speak, and is, as a rule, to be found in three
classes of oratory, demonstrative, deliberative, and
forensic; that every speech is composed of matter
and words, and that as regards matter we must
[p. 181]
study invention, as regards words, style, and as
regards both, arrangement, all of which it is the
task of memory to retain and delivery to render
attractive.
[7]
I attempted to show that the duty of
the orator is composed of instructing, moving and
delighting his hearers, statement of facts and argument falling under the head of instruction, while
emotional appeals are concerned with moving the
audience and, although they may be employed
throughout the case, are most effective at the beginning and end. As to the element of charm, I
pointed out that, though it may reside both in facts
and words, its special sphere is that of style.
[8]
I
observed that there are two kinds of questions, the
one indefinite, the other definite, and involving the
consideration of persons and circumstances of time
and place; further, that whatever our subject matter, there are three questions which we must ask, is
it? what is it? and of what kind is it? To this I
added that demonstrative oratory consists of praise
and denunciation, and that in this connexion we
must consider not merely the acts actually performed by the person of whom we were speaking,
but what happened after his death. This task I
showed to be concerned solely with what is honourable or expedient.
[9]
I remarked that in deliberative
oratory there is a third department as well which
depends on conjecture, for we have to consider
whether the subject of deliberation is possible or
likely to happen. At this point I emphasised the
importance of considering who it is that is speaking,
before whom he is speaking, and what he says. As
regards forensic cases, I demonstrated that some
turn on one point of dispute, others on several, and
[p. 183]
that whereas in some cases it is the attack, in others
in is the defence that determines the basis; that
every defence rests on denial, which is of two kinds,
since we may either deny that the act was committed or that its nature was that alleged, while it
further consists of justification and technical pleas
to show that the action cannot stand.
[10]
I proceeded
to show that questions must turn either on something written or something done: in the latter
case we have to consider the truth of the facts
together with their special character and quality;
in the former we consider the meaning or the
intention of the words, with reference to which we
usually examine the nature of all cases, criminal or
civil, which fall under the heads of the letter and
intention, the syllogism, ambiguity or contrary lairs.
[11]
I went on to point out that in all forensic cases the
speech consists of five parts, the exordium designed
to conciliate the audience, the statement of facts
designed to instruct him, the proof which confirms
our own propositions, the refutation which overthrows
the arguments of our opponents, and the peroration
which either refreshes the memory of our hearers
or plays upon their emotions.
[12]
I then dealt with the
sources of arguments and emotion, and indicated
the means by which the judges should be excited,
placated, or amused. Finally I demonstrated the
method of division. But I would ask that the
student who is really desirous of learning should
believe that there are also a variety of subjects with
regard to which nature itself should provide much
of the requisite knowledge without any assistance
from formal teaching, so that the precepts of which
I have spoken may be regarded not so much as
[p. 185]
having been discovered by the professors of rhetoric
as having been noted by them when they presented
themselves.
[13]
The points which follow require greater care and
industry. For I have now to discuss the theory of
style, a subject which, as all orators agree, presents
the greatest difficulty. For Marcus Antonius, whom
I mentioned above, states that lie has seen many
good, but no really eloquent speakers, and holds
that, while to be a good speaker it is sufficient to
say what is necessary, only the really eloquent
speaker can do this in ornate and appropriate language.1
1 de Or.
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